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Tibet is located in southwest China. The ancestors of the Tibetan
race who lived there struck up links with the Han in the Central
Plains long before the Christian era. Later, over a long period
of years, the numerous tribes scattered on the Tibet Plateau became
unified to form the present Tibetan race. By the Tang Dynasty (618-907),
the Tibetans and Hans had, through marriage between royal families
and meetings leading to alliances, cemented political and kinship
ties of unity and political friendship and formed close economic
and cultural relations, laying a solid foundation for the ultimate
founding of a unified nation. In Lhasa, the capital of the Tibet
Autonomous Region, the statue of the Tang Princess Wen Cheng, who
married the Tubo tsampo, king of Tibet, in 641, is still enshrined
and worshiped in the Potala Palace. The Tang-Tubo Alliance Monument
marking the meeting for this purpose between Tang and Tubo erected
in 823 still stands in the square in front of the Jokhang Monastery.
The monument inscription reads in part, "The two sovereigns, uncle
and nephew, having come to agreement that their territories be united
as one, have signed this alliance of great peace to last for eternity!
May God and humanity bear witness thereto so that it may be praised
from generation to generation."
In the mid-13th century, Tibet was officially incorporated into
the territory of China's Yuan Dynasty. Since then, although China
experienced several dynastic changes, Tibet has remained under the
jurisdiction of the central government of China.
Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368)
In the early 13th century, Genghis Khan, leader of the Mongols,
established the Mongol Khanate in north China. In 1247 Sagya Pandit
Gonggar Gyamcan, religious leader of Tibet, met the Mongol Prince
Gotan at Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei of Gansu, China) and decided
on terms for Tibetan submission to the Mongols, including presentation
of map and census books, payment of tributes, and the acceptance
of rule by appointed officials. The Tibetan work Sagya Genealogy
written in 1629 includes Sagya Pandit's letter to the religious
and secular leaders in the various parts of Tibet that they must
pledge allegiance to the Mongols and accept the regional administrative
system prescribed for Tibet. The regime of the Mongol Khanate changed
its title to Yuan in 1271 and unified the whole of China in 1279,
establishing a central government, which, following the Han (206
BC-220) and Tang dynasties, achieved great unification of various
regions and races within the domain of China. Tibet became an administrative
region directly under the administration of the central government
of China's Yuan Dynasty.
The Yuan emperor established the Xuanzheng Yuan or Ministry for
the Spread of Governance to directly handle important military and
political affairs of the Tibet region. Choice of its members lay
with the emperor and its reports were submitted directly to the
monarch. Yuanshi, the chief minister having real authority in the
Xuanzheng Yuan, was a post generally held concurrently by the right-hand
prime minister of the central government who was in charge of the
whole nation's governmental affairs.
In the Tibetan region, local military and administrative organs
were set up under the name of the High Pacification Commissioner's
Office, which was under the Xuanzheng Yuan. Under the jurisdiction
of this office were 13 wanhu offices (myriarchies each in
command of 10,000 households) and more qianhu offices (chiliarchies
each in command of 1,000 households) handling civil administration.
The names of these organizations and official posts were decided
by the central government of the Yuan Dynasty. It also had troops
stationed in Tibet. A royal prince and his descendents were stationed
on the eastern border of Tibet at the head of an army. When Tibet
was enmeshed in trouble, the prince could enter the area from nearby
garrison to perform his duty of guarding the security of the border
region. In 1290, when the head of a wanhu office rose in
rebellion, the central government of the Yuan Dynasty dispatched
the prince into Tibet at the head of his army to put it down.
The central government of the Yuan Dynasty sent officials into
Tibet to set up post stations, whose size varied according to the
local population, topography and resources. These post stations
were linked up in a communication line extending from Tibet up to
Dadu (present-day Beijing).
The central government of the Yuan Dynasty also dispatched officials
into Tibet to conduct censuses, establish the number of corvee laborers
in areas under various wanhu offices and decide the number of corvee
laborers, provisions and animal transport the areas along the post
route had to supply. Such censuses were conducted three times in
Tibet, in 1268, 1287 and 1334. The Tibetan work History From
the Han and Tibetan Sources records them in detail.
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
In 1368 the Ming Dynasty replaced the Yuan Dynasty in China, and
inherited the right to rule Tibet.
The central government of the Ming Dynasty retained most of the
titles and ranks of official positions instituted during the Yuan
Dynasty. In the central and eastern parts of present-day Tibet,
the Dbus-Gtsang Itinerant High Commandery and the Mdo-khams Itinerant
High Commandery were set up respectively. Equivalent to provincial-level
military organs, they operated under the Shaanxi Itinerant High
Commandery and, at the same time, handled civil administration.
In Ngari in west Tibet, the E-Li-Si Army-Civilian Marshal Office
was instituted. Leading officials of these organs were all appointed
by the central government.
The third emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Chengzu (reigned 1403-1424)
saw the advantage of combined Buddhist religious and political power
in Tibet and rivalry between sects occupying different areas. So
he conferred honorific titles on religious leaders in various parts
of Tibet such as the "prince of Dharma," "prince" and "national
master in Tantrism." Succession to such princeship needed the approval
of the emperor, who would send an envoy to confer the official title
on each new prince. Only then could the new prince assume his role.
According to the stipulations of the Ming court, the prince had
to dispatch his envoy or come in person to the capital to participate
in the New Year's Day celebration each year and present his memorial
of congratulation and tribute. The Ming court had detailed stipulations
that limited the dates for presenting tributes, the number of personnel
allowed in the capital, the route to be taken, and also provisions
to be supplied by local authorities along the route. The tablets
wishing longevity to the emperors before which the prayers had to
prostrate themselves are still kept in some of the monasteries in
Tibet.
The Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Lama are the two leading incarnation
hierarchies of the Gelug Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The Gelug Sect
rose during the Ming Dynasty, and the 3rd Dalai Lama was the abbot
of one of the sect's monasteries. The central government of the
Ming Dynasty showed him special favor by allowing him to pay tribute.
In 1587 he was granted the title of Dorjichang or Vajradhara
Dalai Lama.
Any official of the Tibetan local government who offended the law
was punished by the central government.
Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)
When the Qing Dynasty replaced the Ming Dynasty in 1644, it further
strengthened administration over Tibet. In 1653 and 1713, the Qing
emperors granted honorific titles to the 5th Dalai Lama and the
5th Bainqen Lama, henceforth officially establishing the titles
of the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni and their political and
religious status in Tibet. The Dalai Lama ruled the bulk of areas
from Lhasa while the Bainqen Erdeni ruled the remaining area of
Tibet from Xigaze. In 1719, Qing government troops were sent into
Tibet to dispel the Zungar forces which had been entrenched in Lhasa
for three years, and set out to reform Tibet's administrative system.
The Qing emperor made a young Living Buddha of the Xikang area the
7th Dalai Lama and had him escorted into Tibet, and appointed four
Tibetan officials renowned for meritorious service "Galoins" to
handle Tibet's political affairs. From 1727, High commissioners
were stationed in Tibet to supervise local administration on behalf
of the central authorities. Officials were also assigned about this
time to survey and delimit the borders between Tibet (i.e. Xizang)
and Sichuan, Yunnan and Qinghai.
In order to perfect Tibet's administrative organizations, the Qing
Dynasty on many occasions enacted "regulations" to rectify and reform
old systems and establish new ones. The Authorized Regulations for
the Better Governing of Tibet, promulgated in 1793, had 29 articles.
Their major purport was:
The Qing government holds the power to confirm the reincarnation
of all deceased high Living Buddhas of Tibet including the Dalai
Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni. When the reincarnate boy has been found,
his name will be written on a lot, which shall be put into a gold
urn bestowed by the central government. The high commissioners will
bring together appropriate high-ranking Living Buddhas to determine
the authenticity of the reincarnate boy by drawing lots from the
gold urn. (Both the gold urn and lots are still preserved in Lhasa.)
The tonsure of the incarnate Living Buddha, his religious name,
the choice of the master to initiate him into monkhood and his sutra
instructor all have to be reported by the high commissioners to
the imperial court for examination and approval. The central government
will send high officials to supervise in person the installation
ceremony for the new Dalai Lama and the new Bainqen Erdeni and also
the ceremony for their taking over reins of government at coming
of age.
The high commissioners will supervise the handling of Tibetan affairs
on behalf of the central government, enjoying the equal standing
with the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni. All the Galoins and
those below them are subordinates.
The ranks and numbers of Tibetan civil and military officials,
and procedures for their promotion and replacement are stipulated.
The highest-Ranking Tibetan officials including four Galoins and
six Deboins are to be appointed by the central government. The annual
salaries of the Galoins and Deboins will be paid by the central
government.
A regular army of 3,000 will be organized in Tibet. The regulations
stipulate ranks and numbers of military officials, the source of
troop pay and provisions, plus weaponry and places where troops
are to be stationed. In addition, some 1,400 troops will be transferred
from the interior to stations in various localities of Tibet. Both
Tibetan and Han troops are put under the command of officers sent
by the central government.
A mint will be set up in Tibet along the lines established by those
in the interior to make official money for circulation. On the two
sides of the silver coinage the words "Qianlong Treasure" will be
cast in the Han Chinese and Tibetan.
The annual financial receipts and expenditures of the Dalai Lama
and the Bainqen Erdeni will be subject to checking by the high commissioners.
Tibet's taxation and corvee labor will be born by the whole society
on an equal footing. Only those nobles and large monasteries who
have made real contributions will enjoy preferential treatment and
exemptions, but these must be examined and approved by the high
commissioners and the Dalai Lama, who will issue them licences for
this purpose.
Merchants from Nepal and Kashmir wanting to do business in Tibet
must register. The registration book must be filed with the high
commissioners for record. The appropriate officials will issue laissez-passers
to them. Any foreigner applying to enter Lhasa must be examined
for approval by the High Commissioner's Office. The high commissioners
will issue laissez-passers to Tibetans who apply to go to Nepal
or other places, and set the leaving and returning dates for them.
National boundary markers will be erected in a number of places
where southwest Tibet borders on countries like India and Nepal.
The high commissioners will make an annual tour in Tibet to inspect
the defense arrangements of the troops stationed there and matters
concerning border markers.
All foreign affairs involving Tibet will be left completely in
the hands of the high commissioners. No Galoin is allowed to maintain
correspondence with the outside, and all letters and alms received
by the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni from the outside must be
submitted to the high commissioners for censorship and decision
concerning a reply.
Criminal punishment will be reported to the high commissioners
for examination and approval.
Between 1727, when the high commissionership was first established,
and 1911, the year the Qing Dynasty was overthrown, the central
government of the Qing Dynasty stationed more than 100 high commissioners
in Tibet.
Republic of China (1912-49)
In the autumn of 1911, revolution took place in China's interior,
overthrowing the 270-year-old rule of the Qing Dynasty and establishing
the Republic of China.
Upon its founding, the Republic of China declared itself a unified
republic of the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui, Tibetan and other races.
In his inauguration statement on January 1, 1912, Sun Yat-sen, the
provisional first president of the Republic of China, declared to
the whole world: "The foundation of the country lies in the people,
and the unification of lands inhabited by the Han, Manchu, Mongol,
Hui and Tibetan people into one country means the unification of
the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui and Tibetan races. It is called national
unification." The five-color flag used as the national flag at that
time represented the unification of the five main races. In March
the Nanjing-based provisional senate of the Republic of China promulgated
the republic's first constitution, the Provisional Constitution
of the Republic of China, in which it was clearly stipulated that
Tibet was a part of the territory of the Republic of China.
In order to form the first parliament of the Republic of China,
the Beijing government promulgated on August 10, 1912 the Organic
Law of the Parliament of the Republic of China and the law on elections
for members of parliament. These statutes specified the methods
for Tibetans to participate in elections, and the right of elected
parliamentary members to have a direct say in government affairs.
When the Chinese Kuomintang formed the national government in 1927
in Nanjing and held the national assembly in 1931, both the 13th
Dalai Lama and the 9th Bainqen Erdeni sent representatives to participate.
Article I of the General Outline of the Constitution for the Political
Tutelage Period of the Republic of China, formulated during the
assembly, stipulated that Tibet belonged to the territories of the
Republic of China. The Tibetan local government and the Bainqen's
administrative body, Kampus Assembly, also sent representatives
to the national assembly in 1946 called by the Nanjing national
government.
As in the previous Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, the central government
of the Republic of China exercised jurisdiction over Tibet. The
Bureau of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs (renamed Mongolian and Tibetan
Council in May 1914) was established by the central government in
1912 to replace the Qing Dynasty's Department in Charge of Mongolian
and Tibetan Affairs. The bureau was responsible for Tibetan local
affairs. The central government also appointed a representative
to Tibet to carry out the responsibilities of the high commissioners
stationed in Tibet by the Qing Dynasty. After the Nanjing national
government was set up, a Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs
was established in 1929 to handle the administrative affairs of
the Tibetans, Mongolians and other ethnic minorities. In April 1940
the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs opened an office
in Lhasa as the permanent mission of the central government in Tibet.
Traditionally, the Dalai Lama, the Bainqen Erdeni and other high
Living Buddhas had to be recognized and appointed by the central
government in order to secure their political and religious legal
status in Tibet. Despite the fact that incessant foreign aggression
and civil wars weakened the central government of the Republic of
China, it continued to grant honorific titles to the Dalai Lama
and the Bainqen Erdeni. On many occasions the Dalai Lama and the
Bainqen Erdeni expressed their support for national unification
and for the central government. In 1919, the 13th Dalai Lama told
a delegation sent by the Beijing central government, "It is not
my true intention to be on intimate terms with the British.... I
swear to be loyal to our own country and jointly work for the happiness
of the five races." In his later years (in 1930), he said, "My greatest
wish is for the real peace and unification of China." "Since it
is all Chinese territory, why distinguish between you and us?" He
further elaborated, "The British truly intend to tempt me, but I
know that our sovereignty must not be lost." He also publicly expressed
his determination "not to affiliate with the British nor forsake
the central government" (Liu Manqing: A Mission to Xikang and
Tibet). The 9th Bainqen noted in his will, "The great plan I
have promoted all my life is the support of the central government,
the spread of Buddhism, the promotion of the unity of the five nationalities
and the guarantee of national prosperity."
The death of the 13th Dalai Lama in December 1933 was reported
to the central government by the Tibetan local government in the
traditional manner. The national government sent a special envoy
to Tibet for the memorial ceremony. It also approved the Living
Buddha Razheng as the regent to assume the duties and power of the
Dalai Lama. The Tibetan local government also followed the age-old
system in reporting to the central government all the procedures
that should be followed in search for the reincarnation of the late
13th Dalai Lama. The present 14th Dalai Lama was born in Qinghai
Province. Originally named Lhamo Toinzhub, he was selected as one
of the incarnate boys at the age of 2. After receiving a report
submitted by the Tibetan local government in 1939, the central government
ordered the Qinghai authorities to send troops to escort him to
Lhasa. After an inspection tour in Lhasa by Wu Zhongxin, chief of
the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs, in 1940, Chiang
Kai-shek, then head of the central government, approved Tibetan
Regent Razheng's request to waive the lot-drawing convention, and
the chairman of the national government issued an official decree
conferring the title of the 14th Dalai Lama on Lhamo Toinzhub.
People's Republic of China
The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949 after decisive
victories in the Chinese People's War of Liberation. Beiping, Hunan
and the provinces bordering on Tibet--Yunnan, Xinjiang and Xikang--were
all liberated peacefully from the rule of the former Kuomintang
government. In light of the history and reality of Tibet, the central
people's government decided to do the same for Tibet. In January
1950, the central government formally notified the local authorities
of Tibet to "send delegates to Beijing to negotiate the peaceful
liberation of Tibet." However, the then Tibetan Regent Dagzhag Ngawang
Sungrab and others who were in control of the Tibetan local government,
supported by some foreign forces and disregarding the interests
of the country and the Tibetans, rejected the central government's
call for negotiation on the peaceful liberation of Tibet. They deployed
the main body of the Tibetan army in the Qamdo area in east Tibet
for armed resistance. Under such circumstances, the central government
was left with no choice and had to order the People's Liberation
Army (PLA) to cross the Jinsha River in October 1950, and Qamdo
was liberated.
Following this event, the central government once again urged the
Tibetan local government to send delegates to Beijing for negotiations.
The central government's adherence to the policy of peaceful negotiations
greatly supported and inspired the patriotic forces in Tibet. The
upper-class patriotics, represented by Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme, stood
for peaceful negotiation, winning the endorsement and support of
the majority. The 14th Dalai Lama who had assumed power ahead of
time accepted the proposal. In his letter to the central people's
government in January 1951, he said, "I have come to govern at the
warm and earnest request of all Tibetans"; "I have decided to fulfill
the people's desire through peaceful means"; and delegates would
be sent "to seek a solution to the Tibetan issue with the central
people's government." In February 1951, the Dalai Lama appointed
Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme as his chief plenipotentiary and Kemai Soinam
Wangdui, Tubdain Daindar, Tubdain Legmoin and Sampo Dainzin Toinzhub
as delegates and sent them to Beijing to handle with full power
the negotiations with the central people's government.
On May 23, 1951, the Agreement of the Central People's Government
and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation
of Tibet (i.e., the 17-Article Agreement) was signed after the delegates
of the central people's government and the Tibetan local government
had reached agreement on a series of questions concerning Tibet's
peaceful liberation. It was stipulated in the agreement that the
Tibetan people should unite and drive out imperialist aggressive
forces from Tibet; the local government of Tibet should actively
assist the PLA in entering Tibet and consolidating national defense;
national regional autonomy would be instituted in Tibet; the central
government would not alter the existing political system in Tibet
or the established status, functions and powers of the Dalai Lama
and the Bainqen Erdeni, and officials of various ranks would continue
to hold office as usual; the policy of freedom of religious belief
would be upheld and the religious beliefs, customs and habits of
the Tibetan people would be respected; the spoken and written language
and school education of the Tibetan nationality would be developed
step by step, along with agriculture, livestock raising, industry
and commerce in order to improve the people's livelihood; foreign
affairs involving the Tibet region would be under the unified management
of the central people's government. The agreement also explicitly
stipulated that in matters relating to reforms in Tibet, there would
be no coercion on the part of the central authorities, and reform
would be carried out by the Tibetan local government of its own
accord.
The agreement for the peaceful liberation of Tibet enjoyed the
approval and support of the people from every ethnic group in Tibet.
A conference of all ecclesiastic and secular officials and representatives
of the three most prominent monasteries was called by the Tibetan
local government between September 26 and 29, 1951 to specifically
discuss the agreement. A report to the Dalai Lama was approved at
the end of the conference. It stated, "The 17-Article Agreement
that has been signed is of great and unrivaled benefit to the grand
cause of the Dalai and to Buddhism, politics, economy and other
aspects of life in Tibet. Naturally it should be implemented." The
Dalai Lama sent a telegram to Chairman Mao Zedong on October 24,
1951, in which he wrote, "On the basis of friendship, delegates
of the two sides signed on May 23, 1951 the Agreement on Measures
for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. The Tibetan local government
as well as ecclesiastic and secular people unanimously support this
agreement, and under the leadership of Chairman Mao and the central
people's government, will actively assist the PLA troops entering
Tibet in consolidating national defense, ousting imperialist influences
from Tibet and safeguarding the unification of the territory and
the sovereignty of the motherland." The Bainqen Lama and the Kampus
Assembly also issued a statement, pointing out that the agreement
"conforms fully to the interests of all ethnic nationalities of
China, particularly those of the Tibetans." On October 26, with
the support of the Tibetan people, the PLA entered Lhasa without
a hitch.
After the peaceful liberation of Tibet, the central people's government
and upper-class patriotic forces of Tibet did a great deal of work
to implement the 17-Article Agreement. In 1954 the Dalai Lama and
the Bainqen Erdeni came to Beijing to attend the First Session of
the National People's Congress (NPC) of the People's Republic of
China. In his speech at the congress, the Dalai Lama fully confirmed
the achievements in the implementation of the 17-Article Agreement
over the preceding three years, and expressed his warm support for
the principles and provisions concerning national regional autonomy
in the draft of New China's first Constitution, which was under
discussion at the congress. Talking about religious issues, the
Dalai Lama said that the Tibetan people had deeply held religious
beliefs, and they were formerly made anxious by fallacious rumors
spread by some people that "the Communist Party and the people's
government will extinguish religion." However, he added, "the rumors
that aim to sow discord have all been exploded and the Tibetan people
know from our own experience that we have freedom of religious belief."
He expressed the desire to gradually build Tibet into a land of
prosperity and happiness under the leadership of the central people's
government and with the help of people of other ethnic groups. On
September 20, the Dalai Lama, the Bainqen Erdeni and the other Tibetan
deputies, along with the deputies from other ethnic groups, approved
the Constitution of the People's Republic of China by casting their
ballots. At the session, the Dalai Lama was elected a vice-chairman
of the NPC Standing Committee, and Bainqen Erdeni a member of the
NPC Standing Committee. In their capacity as state leaders, they
exercised their rights of participating in the management of state
affairs in accordance with the Constitution.
On April 22, 1956, the Dalai Lama became chairman of the Preparatory
Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region. In his speech at the
inaugural meeting, the Dalai Lama said, "In 1951, I sent delegates
to Beijing to negotiate with delegates of the central people's government.
On the basis of fraternal unity, the Agreement of the Central People's
Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the
Peaceful Liberation of Tibet was signed. Since then, the Tibetan
people shook off forever the fetters of imperialist enslavement
and trammels and rejoined the large national family. Like our sibling
races throughout the country, the Tibetan people fully enjoy all
rights of national equality, and are embarking on a bright road
of freedom and happiness."
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